\chapter{Prerequisites}
 Before beginning  the discussion on the
design process, it is important to state some of the prerequisites that should be
held in mind during the design process.  The word prerequisites was chosen for this
chapter to state that the designer need to keep in mind during the design
process.  The prerequisites include, scheduling, material selection, human factors
and safety issues.  
\section{Scheduling}
Developing a new product following the design process is always limited by the
amount of time available for the entire process.  Over the years several
methods and procedures have been proposed to manage and plane for the
production of an artifact.   Many projects have failed through the lack of
attention to such detail. Historically the engineering projects were a one
engineer kind of project, the designer, the drafter and the planner is the same
person.  In recent years with the advancement of the products and technology
the products requires teems of engineers and technical helpers beside the
regular workers to be accomplished.  In the following we will discuss some of
the existing techniques for scheduling.
\subsection{Gantt Chart}
 This chart was introduced by Henry L. Gantt and Frederick Taylor in the early
 1900s to aid management of  projects.  The Gantt chart is taken the form of a
 bar charts.  The steps to establish a Gantt chart are as follows:
 \begin{enumerate}
 \item list all events or milestones of the project in an ordered list
 \item estimate the time required to establish each event
 \item list the starting time and end time for each event
 \item represent the information in a bar chart
 \end{enumerate}
 An example of the Gantt chart is shown in figure \ref{gantt}
 \begin{figure}
 \vspace{4in}
 \caption{Gantt Chart}
 \label{gantt}
 \end{figure}
 \subsection{CPM/PERT}
 The critical path method (CPM) and the program evaluation and review technique
 (PERT) which were originally developed during the same time period, are the
 two most widely used approaches. 
 PERT was developed under the guidance of the U.S. Navy Special Projects
 Office by a team  that included members from the Lockheed Missile Systems
 Division and the consulting firm Booz, Allen and Hamilton.  The technique was
 developed to monitor the effort of 250 main contractors and 9,000
 subcontractors concerned with the Polaris missile project.  CPM was the
 result of the efforts of the Integrated Engineering Control Group of E.I.
 duPont de Nemours \& Company and was developed to monitor activities related
 to design and construction.  
 
 A survey of manufacturing companies in the United States revealed that CPM/PERT
 are used for over 65\% among all other methods.  A CPM/PERT project generally
 has the following characteristics:
 \begin{enumerate}
 \item There are clearly defined activities or jobs whose accomplishment
 results in project completion
 \item Once started, the activity or job continues without interruption
 \item The activities or tasks are independent, which means they may be
 started, stopped, and performed individually in a prescribed sequence
 \item The activities or jobs are ordered and they are follow each other in a
 specified manner
 \end{enumerate}
 Even though the CPM and PERT techniques were developed independently, the
 basic theory and symbology in both techniques are essential the same.
 \subsection{Definitions}
 Several symbols, terms and definitions are used in developing the CPM/PERT
 networks and they are:
 \begin{enumerate}
 \item Event (node) :This represents a point in time in the life of a project. 
 An event can be the beginning or the end of an activity.  A circle is used to
 represent an event.  Generally, each network event is identified with a
 number.
 \item Activity: This is an effort needed to carry out certain portion of the
 project.  An activity consumes money, labor, time and materials and is denoted by
 a continuous arrow [$\longrightarrow$].  the direction of progress on the project
 is indicated by the arrowhead.  Further, an activity both begins and ends at a
 circle.
 \item Dummy activity: This is an imaginary activity that takes zero time and no
 resources to perform.  Its purpose is to show appropriate relationships between
 activities.  A doted arrow is use to present such activity.
 \item Network paths.  These are the paths used or needed to reach the project
 termination point or event from the project starting point or event.
 \item Critical path: This is the longest path with respect to time duration
 through the PERT/CPM network.  In other words the critical path is the largest sum
 of activity duration of all individual network paths.
 \item Earliest event time (EET) : This is the earliest time at which an event
 occurs, providing all proceeding activities are accomplished within their
 estimated time.
 \item Latest event time (LET): This is the latest time at which an event could be
 reached without delaying the predicted project completion date.
 \item Total float: This is the latest time of an event minus the earliest time of
 the preceding event and the duration time of the in-between activity.
 \end{enumerate}
 \subsection{Network Development}
 Steps involved in constructing a CPM network are as follows:
 \begin{enumerate}
 \item Break down the design into individual activities and identify each activity
 \item Estimate the time required for each activity
 \item Determine the activity sequence
 \item Construct the CPM network, using the defined symbols
 \item Determine the critical path of the network
 \end{enumerate}
 Similarly, the steps involved in developing a PERT network are
 \begin{enumerate}
 \item Break down the design into individual activities and identify each activity
 \item Determine the activity sequence
 \item Construct the PERT network, using the defined symbols
 \item Obtain the expected time to perform each activity, using the following
 formula
 \[T_{e}=\frac{x+4y+z}{6}\]
 where\\
 $T_{e}$ is the expected time for the activity\\
 $x$ is the optimistic time estimate for the activity\\
 $y$ is the most likely time estimate for the activity\\
 $z$ is the pessimistic time estimate for the activity\\
 \item Determine the network critical path
 \item Compute the variance associated  with the estimated expected time of $T_{e}$
 of each activity using the following formula
 \[S=\left(\frac{z-x}{6}\right)^{2}\]
 \item Obtain the probability of accomplishing the design project on the stated
 date using the following formula:
 \[w=\frac{T-T_{L}}{\left[ \sum{ S_{cr}^{2}}\right]^{\frac{1}{2}}}\]
 where\\
 $S_{cr}^{2}$ is the variance of activities on the critical path\\
 $T_{L}$ is the last activity's earliest expected completion time, as calculated
 through the network.\\
 $T$ is the design project due date, expressed in time units.
 
 Table \ref{tab1} presents the probabilities for selective values of $w$.
 \begin{center}
 \begin{table}
 \begin{tabular}{|l|l|}
 $w$&Probability\\ \hline
 -3&0.0013\\
 -2.5&0.006\\
 -2&0.023\\
 -1.5&0.067\\
 -1&.159\\
 -0.5&0.309\\
 0&.5\\
 0.5&0.69\\
 1&0.84\\
 1.5&0.933\\
 2&0.977\\
 2.5&0.994\\
 3&0.999\\
 
 \end{tabular}
 \label{tab1}
 \end{table}
 \end{center}
 \end{enumerate}
 \subsubsection*{Example}
 A mechanical design project was broken down into a number of major jobs or
 activities, as shown in table \ref{tab2}.  Develop a CPM network using the data
 given in the table and determine the critical path of the network, along with the
 expected project duration time period.
 
 \begin{table}
 \begin{tabular}{cccc}
 Activity&Activity&Immediate Predecessor&Activity Duration\\
 Description&identification&activity or activities&week or weeks \\ \hline
Group formation&A&--&1\\
Literature search and&&&\\
design idea generation&B&A&2\\
Idea evaluation&C&B&1\\
Design and evaluation&D&C&4\\
Part manufacture&E&D&3\\
Part procurement&F&D&4\\
Design assembly&G&E,F&2\\
Testing&H&G&2\\
Cost estimation &I&G&4\\
Report and presentation&J&H,I,3\\

\end{tabular}
\label{tab2}
\end{table}


Using the defined symbols and the data given in table \ref{tab2}, the CPM network
is shown in figure \ref{cpm}.  
\begin{figure}
\vspace{2in}
\caption{CPM Chart}
\label{cpm}
\end{figure}

The paths originated at event 1 and terminated at
event 11 are as follows
\begin{enumerate}
\item A-B-C-D-E-G-I-J time=20
\item A-B-C-D-F-G-I-J  time=21
\item A-B-C-D-E-G-H-J  time =18
\item A-B-C-D-F-G-H-J  time=19
\end{enumerate}
these results indicate that the longest path is (A-B-C-D-F-G-I-J)and the predicted
completion time for the design project is 21 weeks.
\section{Material Selection}
The design even of the simplest element requires the selection of a suitable material and
a decision regarding the methods of manufacturing which are to be used in producing the
element.  These two factors are closely related and the choice made will affect the shape,
size, appearance, cost and so on, and may make the difference between a commercial success
or a commercial failure.  As the design becomes more complex and involves more elements,
so the selection of suitable materials and methods of production becomes more difficult. 
The design engineer must be sufficiently familiar with the characteristics and properties
of materials, and the way in which they can be shaped to ensure that his decisions are
good.
\subsection{Material Classifications and Properties}
The various types of materials that may be used in a product design are classified as:
\begin{enumerate}
\item Metals: This important materials classification can be further divided into two
categories; ferrous and nonferrous alloys.  Ferrous alloys are based on iron, which has
good mechanical properties. Nonferrous alloys are based on materials other than iron, such
as copper, tin, aluminum and lead.
\item Ceramics and glass: These are the result of the combination of metallic and
nonmetallic elements.  They are good insulators, brittle, thermally stable, more wear
resistant compared to metals, harder and lower in thermal expansion than most metals.
\item Woods and organics: These are obtained from trees and plants.  Their major advantage
is that they are renewable resource.  However, some of their drawbacks are that they
absorb water, require special treatment to prevent rotting and are more flammable.
\item Polymers or plastics: These materials change viscosity with variation in
temperature; therefore they are easy to mold into a given shape. There are several benefits
of polymers: good insulators; resistant to chemicals and water; smooth surface finish;
available in many colors; eliminating the need for painting.  There are several drawbacks
of polymers: low strength, deterioration in ultraviolet light, and excessive creep at all
temperatures.
\end{enumerate}
The properties of material can be divided into six categories: Mechanical, thermal,
physical, chemical, and fabrication.  Mechanical properties include: fatigue, strength,
elasticity, wear, hardness and plasticity.  Thermal properties include, absorptivity,
conductivity, fire resistance and expansion coefficient.  Physical properties are:
density, permeability, viscosity, crystal structure, and porosity.  Chemical properties
include: corrosion, oxidation and hydraulic permeability. Four important electrical
properties are: hysteresis, conductivity, coercive force and dielectric constant.  There
are several fabrication properties, some of which are: weldability, castability,
machinability and heat treatability.
\subsection{Material Selection Process}
Several systematic approaches have been developed for selecting materials, one of these
procedures is listed here:
\begin{enumerate}
\item Perform a material requirements analysis: This step is concerned with determining
the environmental and service condition at which the product will have to operate under.
\item List the suitable material: This step calls for filtering through the available
material and obtain several suitable candidates.
\item Choose most suitable material: This step involves analysis of the material listed
with respect to such factors as cost, performance, availability and fabrication ability
and then select the most suitable material.
\item Obtain the necessary test data: this step calls for determining the important
properties of the selected material experimentally under real life operational conditions.
\item Product specification fulfillment:  The selected material must satisfy the stated
specifications
\item Cost: This important factor plays a dominant role in marketing of the end product.
\item Material availability: The selected material must be available at a reasonable cost.
\item Material Joining approach: Under real life conditions, it may be impractical to
produce an element using a single piece of material.  This may call for manufacturing the
components with different pieces of material joined together to form a single unit.
\item Fabrication: Engineering products usually require some level of fabrication, and
many different fabrication techniques are available.  Factors affecting the fabrication
method selected include: time constraints, material type, product application, cost,
quantity to be manufactured.
\item Technical issues: Technical factors mainly concern with th material mechanical
properties.  Examples include: strength compared to anticipated load, safety factors,
weight, temperature variation and potential loading changes.
\end{enumerate}
\subsection{Primary Manufacturing Methods}
The primary manufacturing methods which are used to convert a material into the basic
shape required are
\begin{enumerate}
\item Casting: Casting is widely used first step in manufacturing process.  During 
casting, an item takes on its initial usable shape.  In the casting process a solid is
meted down, heated to a desirable temperature level.  The molten material is then poured
into a mold made in the required shape.  The cast items may range in size and weight from
a fraction of an inch to several yards.  Typical examples are a zipper's individual teeth,
propellers, and the stern frames of ships.
\item Forging: Forging which is among the most important methods of manufacturing items of
high performance uses, involves changing the shape of the piece of material by exerting 
force on that piece.  The methods of applying pressure include: mechanical press,
hydraulic press and drop hammer. Products such as cranckshafts, wrenches and connecting
rods are the result of forging.  The material to be forged may be hot or cold.
\item Machining: machining involves removing unwanted material from a block of material
according to a given specifications, such as size, shape, and finish to produce a final
product. There are many machining processes such as milling, boring, grinding and
drilling.
\item Welding: Welding is a versatile production process which is used for combining items
produced by some other means of manufacturing.  Welding is the process of permanently
joining two materials through coalescence, which involves a combination of pressure,
temperature and surface conditions.
\end{enumerate}
\section{Human Factors}

The science that considers human and his reaction to familiar as well as strange
environment is known by several terms including human engineering, human
factors, human performance and ergonomics.  To adapt human to fit the environment
is almost impossible, so means must be deviced to adapt the environment to suit
the human.  Human behavior is critical to the success of a engineering system. 
Therefore it is important to take typical human behaviors into consideration
during the design phase.  Examples of typical human behaviors are
\begin{enumerate}
\item Human are often reluctant to admit errors
\item Human usually perform tasks while thinking about other things
\item People frequently misread or overlook instructions and labels
\item People often respond irrationally in emergency situations
\item A significant percentage of people become complacent after successfully
handling dangerous items over a long period of time
\item Most people fail to recheck outlined procedures for errors
\item People are generally poor estimators of speed, clearance, or distance. 
They frequently overestimate short distance and underestimate large distance
\item People are generally too impatient to take the time needed to observe
precautions
\item People are often reluctant to admit that they cannot see objects well
enough, due either to poor eyesight or to inadequate illumination.
People generally use their hands for examining or testing.
\end{enumerate}

Every time  man dials a telephone, derives a car, studies an oscilloscope,
operates a computer or forms a part on a lathe he has joined his sensing,
decision-making, and muscular powers to an engineering system.  Figure \ref{erg}
shows the coupling of components necessary to consider man as an integral part
of an efficient man-machine system.
\begin{figure}
\vspace{4in}
\caption{Man-machine System}
\label{erg}
\end{figure}
\subsection{Human Sensory Capabilities}
 Human sensory capabilities include;
  
 \begin{enumerate}
 \item Sight: Human eyes see differently from different angles or positions. 
 For example, looking straight ahead, the eyes can perceive all colors. 
 However, with an increase in the viewing angle, human perception begins to
 decrease.  The limits of color vision are given in table \ref{tabc}
\begin{table} 
 \begin{tabular}{ccccccc}
 Situation&Green&Blue&Yellow&White&Green-Red&Red\\ \hline
 Vertical&40$^{o}$&80$^{o}$&95$^{o}$&130$^{o}$&--&45$^{o}$\\
 Horizontal&--&100$^{o}$&120$^{o}$&180$^{o}$&60$^{o}$&--\\
 \end{tabular}
\label{tabc}
\end{table}
Also at night or in the dark, small-sized orange, blue, green and yellow
warning lights are impossible to distinguish from a distance.
\item Noise: The performance quality of a task requiring intense concentration
may be affected by noise.  It is established fact that noise contribute to
peoples' feelings such as irritability, boredom, and well being.  A noise level
below 90 DB (decibels) is considered harmless and above 100 DB is unsafe. 
Noise levels in excess of 130 dB are considered unpleasant and may actually be
painful.  
\item Touch: Touch adds to, or may be even replace, the information transmitted
to the brain by eyes  and ears.  For example, it is possible to distinguish
control knob shapes by touch alone, which could be valuable if, say, power goes
out and there is no light.
\item Vibration and motion: It is now accepted fact that the poor performance
of physical and mental tasks by equipment operators could be partially or fully
to vibrations. For example, eye strain, headaches and motion sickness could
result from low frequency, large amplitude vibration.  Useful guidelines for
reducing the effects of vibration and motion are as follows:
\begin{enumerate}
\item Eliminate vibration with an amplitude greater than 0.08 millimeter
\item Use such devices as shock absorbers and springs wherever possible
\item Use damping materials or cushioned seats to reduce vibration wherever
possible
\item Since seated humans are most affected by vertical vibration, use this
information to reduce vertical vibration.
\item The resonant frequency of the Human vertical trunk, in the seated
position, is between 3 and 4 cycles per second.  Therefore, avoid any seating
design that would result in or would transmit vibration of 3 to 4 cycles per 
second.
\end{enumerate}
\end{enumerate}
\subsection{Anthropometric Data}
Anthropometry is the science dealing with dimensions of the human body.  These
dimensions are divided into statistical groups known as percentiles.  If 100
men are lined up from smallest to the largest in any given respect they would
be classified from the 1 percentile to the 100 percentile.  The 2.5 percentile
male means that designs based on this series of dimensions would allow up to
2.5\% of the population to use the system and the remaining 97.5\%  would be
excluded.  Figure \ref{adult} shows the dimensions of a standing adult male.
\begin{figure}
\vspace{7in}
\caption{Standing adult male}
\label{adult}
\end{figure}
\section{Safety Considerations}
One important consideration in engineering design is that the resulting product
must be safe for humans.  In recent years, the liability decisions by the courts
have further increased the importance of safety. According to the National
Safety Council, over 105,000 Americans were accidently killed and over 10 million
suffered a disabling injury in 1980 which translated into \$83.2 billion. The
concern for safety is not new it has been there for thousands of years. 

There are many  safety functions during the design process including:
\begin{enumerate}
\item Developing accident prevention requirements for the basic design
\item Participating in the design reviews
\item Performing hazard analyses during the product design cycle

\end{enumerate}
\subsection{Safety Analysis Techniques}
the two techniques, failure modes and effect analysis (FMEA) and fault trees,
which  are used for design stage reliability analysis can also be applied for
safety analyses.
\subsubsection{Failure modes and effect analysis (FMEA)} 
This method was originally developed for use in the design and development of
flight control systems. The method can also be used to evaluate design at the
initial stage from the point view of safety.  Basically the technique calls for
listing the potential failure modes of each part, as well as the effects on the
listed parts and on humans.  The technique may be broken down into seven steps
\begin{enumerate}
\item Defining system boundaries and requirements
\item Listing all items
\item Identifying each component and its associated failure modes
\item Assigning an occurrence probability or failure rate to each failure mode
\item Listing the effects of each failure mode on concerned items and people
\item Entering remarks for each possible failure mode
\item Reviewing and initiating appropriate corrective measures
\end{enumerate}
\subsubsection{Fault trees}
This technique uses various symbols.  It starts by identifying an undesirable
event, called the top event, and then successively asking the question "How
could this event occur?" This process continues until the fault events need
not be developed further.  If occurrence data are known for the basic or
primary fault event, the occurrence measure for the top event can be calculated.

\section{Terchnical Writing and Presentation}
In the engineering and scientific professions, communication skills are as important
as in other fields.  Following the development of an innovative design and a cost
estimate that predicts large profit, the designer must be able to communicate the
findings to other people.   There is an old adage that a tree falling in a forest doesn't
make a sound unless there is someone to listen.  Similarly, the best technical design
in the world might never be implemented unless the designer can communicate the design
ideas to the proper people in the right way.  


The quality of a report generally provides an image in the reader's mind that, in
large measure, determines the reader's impression of the quality of work.  Of
course, an excellent job of report writing cannot disguise a sloppy investigation,
but many excellent design studies have not received proper attention and credit
because the work was reported in a careless manner.  

A formal technical report usually is written at the end of a project.  Generally, it
is a complete, stand-alone document aimed at persons having widely diverse
backgrounds.  Therefore, much more detail is required.  The outline of a typical
formal report consist of 
\begin{enumerate}
\item Cover page: Should have 
\begin{itemize}
\item title of the report
\item  name of author(s)
\item address
\end{itemize}
\item Summary: summarize the work and should also include a short conclusion
\item Table of content
\item List of figures and  list of tables include the corresponding page number.
\item Introduction: Back ground of the work (market analysis) to acquaint reader with the problem and
purpose of carrying on the work.
\item Design Process: Details of the procedure followed in the design process.  
\item Discussion: The discussion could be divided into several subsections such as
This section should contain the comprehensive explanation of the
results.  The discussion could be divided into several subsections such as
\begin{itemize}
\item technical analysis (force requirement, speed, etc.)
\item details of the build up of the artifact
\item equipment used
\item assembly and setup procedures
\item experimental setups and results
\item details of the final results
\end{itemize}
\item  Conclusions: This section states in as concise a form as possible the
conclusions that can be drawn from the study. 
\item References This section lists all the documents to which the writers
referred. The information on each document must be complete and must follow the
same formate throughout.
\item Appendices: This includes material deemed to be beyond the scope of the main
body of the report.  The appendix section may be divided into as many subsections
as necessary.
\end{enumerate}
\subsection{Steps in Writing a Report}
The five operations involved in the writing of a high-quality report are best
remembered with the acronym POWER
\begin{enumerate}
\item {\bf P}:  Plan the writing  
\item {\bf O}: Outline the report
\item {\bf W}: Write
\item {\bf E}: Edit
\item {\bf R}: Rewrite
\end{enumerate}

Good writers usually produce good reports.  Some of the attributes of good writing
are
\begin{enumerate}
\item Write as objectively as possible.  DO not become emotionally involved or
attached to a problem or a solution
\item Be reasonably methodical
\item Record whatever is learned, and keep in mind that whatever work is performed
must eventually be documented.
\item Always Strive for clarity in writing, and keep in mind that the written
material should be simple and straightforward.
\item Deliver the written material on time.
\end{enumerate}

There are also certain qualities associated with good report such as
\begin{enumerate}
\item Deliver on due date
\item Effectively answers readers' questions as they arise
\item Gives a good impression at the first sight
\item Read coherently
\item Contain  effective summary and conclusion
\item Is written Clearly and concisely and avoid vague or superfluous phrases
\item Provides pertinent information
\end{enumerate}


\subsection{Illustration Guidelines}
visual elements, such as figures, charts, graphs, etc., in technical reports have
specific purpose and convey specific information.  Visuals are used to explain,
illustrate, demonstrate, verify or support written material.   Visuals are only
valuable if their presentation is effective.  The general guidelines for preparing
effective visuals (illustrations) are as follows
\begin{enumerate}
\item Reference all illustrations in the text
\item Reference the data source
\item Carefully plan the placement of illustrations.  
\item Specify all units of measure and the scale used in the drawing
\item Label each illustration with an identifying caption and title.  Include
figure source, if it was obtained from another document
\item Spell words out rather than using abbreviations
\item When a document has five or more figures, include a list of figures at the
beginning of the report.
\item Avoid putting too much on an illustration
\end{enumerate}
\subsection{Mechanics of writing}
The following suggestions are presented as a guide to writing and an as in
avoiding some of the most common mistakes.
\begin{itemize}
\item Paragraph structure: Each paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that
provides an overall understanding of the paragraph.  Since each paragraph should
have a single theme or conclusion, the topic sentence states that theme or
conclusion.
\item Sentence length: Sentences should be kept as short as possible so that their
structure is simple and readable.  Long sentences require complex construction,
provide an abundance of opportunity for grammatical errors, lake considerable
writing time, and slow the reader down.  Long sentences are often the result of
putting together two independent thoughts that could be stated better in a separate
sentences.
\item Pronouns: There is no room for any ambiguity between a pronoun and the noun
for which it is used.  Novice commonly use "it", "this", "that", etc., where it
would be better to use one of several nouns.  It may be clear to the writer, but
it is often ambiguous to the reader.  
In general, Personal pronouns (I, you, he, she, my, mine, our, us) are not used in
technical reports.
\item Spelling and punctuation: Errors in these basic elements of writing in the
final draft of the report are inexcusable.
\item Tense: use the following rules when choosing the tense of the verb when
writing
\begin{itemize}
\item Past tense: Use to describe work done when you building or designing, or in
general to the past events.
\item Present tense: Use in reference to items and ideas in the report itself
\item Future tense: Use in making prediction from the data or results that will be
applicable in the future.
\end{itemize}
\end{itemize}
\section{Presentation Style}
Unlike the advertising executive, the engineer is ill-equipped to sell his
ideas. Second hand information represented by the company officials may not
answer all client's questions. In this write-up and during the semester,
students will be given the opportunity to be trained in technical
presentations.  
In this write-up the techniques of oral presentations are briefly discussed.
 

\subsection{Objective}
Every presentation should have an objective. The speaker main objective is to
deliver the message (objective) to the audience.  The objectives may vary
from one talk to another.  To identify the real objective  one needs to
ask the following question: "If everything goes perfectly, 
What I intended to achieve?".  One also should realize who are the audience and 
their educational level.  The time in most cases is limited.  It is of utmost
importance to keep within scheduled time some question/answer session.  For
this detailed planing is required.  Different tools could be used in the
presentation such as, slides, models,transparency, audio-visual, and web.  Make
sure if more than one medium is used, time to shift is accounted for.  One easy
way to see effectiveness of presentation while in a team is for one to play the
role of the speaker and the rest of the team as the audience and possibly play
the devils advocate.  
\subsection{Oral Presentation - Obstacles}
To sell your ideas to others, you should first be convinced that your ideas
will accomplish the task.  Oral presentation requires high degree of creative
ability.  Recall that humans resist changes though they announce that they
welcome it.  Humans like familiar methods.  Changes requires additional effort
which humans in general resist. 
Some usual quotes one hears:
\begin{itemize}
\item We tried before
\item It is too radical change
\item We have never done that before
\item Get back to reality
\item We have always done it this way
\item I don't like the idea
\end{itemize}
The speaker need to keep in mind that
\begin{itemize}
\item Only 70\% of the spoken words is actually received and understood. 
Complete understanding can come through repetition and redundancy in speech.
\item People mostly understand three dimensional objects. Two dimensional
projections need to be transmitted with added details.
\item Usually people perceive problems from their prospectives.
\item Convey ideas so that it is interpreted with the least expenditure of
energy.
\end{itemize}
\subsection{Oral Presentation Dos and Donts}
\begin{enumerate}
\item Know your audience thoroughly.  Deliver an extempore- prepared talk
\item Never read from notes, a sheet or directly from an overhead projector
\item Bring audience up to the speed, in the first few moments
\item Stay within the time allotted
\item Include relevant humorous stories, anecdotes or joke ( Only if you are
good at it)
\item Avoid using specialized technical jargon.  Explain the terms if you feel
the audience may not know.
\item Understand your message clearly.  The whole goal is to clearly
communicate the message
\item Practice-practice-practice, may like to memorize introduction and
concluding remarks
\item The dry run is a dress rehearsal.  Use it to iron out problems in
delivery,organization and timing.
\item Avoid mannerisms: Speak confidently but not aggressively
\item Maintain eye-to-eye contact with some audience and keep shifting that
contact through the talk.
\item Never talk to the board or to empty space
\item Present the material in a clever fashion, but not in a cheap and
sensational fashion.  Be genuinely sincere and professional
\item Logical presentation is much more critical in oral than in written
presentation
\end{enumerate}

\subsection{Oral Presentation Techniques}
\begin{enumerate}
\item Visual aids (sketches, graphs, drawings, photos, models, slides,
transparency, web) often convey information more efficiently and effectively. 
Visual aids permits dual sense of hearing and seeing, apart from helping the
speaker.
\item Limit slides (Viewgraphes) to not more than one per minute
\item each slide should contain one idea
\item First Slide should show the title of your talk and names.
\item Second slide should give a brief outline of the talk
\item Last slide should summarize the message you just delivered
\item If you need to show a slide more than once use a second copy
\item Avoid leaving a slide on the screen if you have finished discussion on
that topic.  
\item Never read directly from the slide.  Spoken words should complement the
slides.  Prepare notes for each slide and use it during practice.
\item Use graphs to explain variations.  Clearly label the axis, data, and
title.  acknowledge the source.
\item Every graph should have a message ( idea). Color should enhance the
communication not distract.
\item Audience respond to well organized information.  That means,
\begin{enumerate}
\item Efficient presentation
\item All assumptions clearly stated and justified
\item Source of information and facts are clearly outlined
\end{enumerate}
\item Begin with the presentation of the problem and conclusion/recommendation
(primarily goal)
\item Finish ahead and be prepared for the question answer session.
\end{enumerate}
\subsection{Question/Answer session}
The question answer session is very important. It shows the enthusiasm in the
audience and usually shows interest and attention.  In the Q/A session you
should
\begin{enumerate}
\item Allow the questioner to complete the question, before answering
\item Avoid being argumentative
\item Do not let the questioner feel that the question is stupid
\item Adjourn the meeting, if the questions slack off
\item Thank the audience, one final time after the Q/A session
\end{enumerate}

\section{Problems}

\subsection{Team Activities}


{\b Scheduling}
\begin{enumerate}
\item Painting a two story house was broken down into a number of major jobs or
activities as shown in Table below:

\begin{table}[ht]
\begin{tabular}{l|l|l|l|l}
N0.&Activity&Identification&Predecessor&Duration \\ \hline
1&Contract signed&A&--&2\\
2&Purchase of material&B&A&2\\
3&Ladder \&staging in site&C&A&2\\
4&Preparation of surface&D&C,B&5\\
5&Base Coat Complete&E&D&6\\
6&Base Coat Inspected&F&E&2\\
7&Trim Coat Complete&G&E&5\\
8&Trim Coat Inspected&H&G,F&2\\
9&Final Inspection&I&H&2\\
10&Removal of staging&J&H&2\\
11&Final Clean up&K&I,J&2\\
\end{tabular}
\caption{team problem 1}
\end{table}
\begin{enumerate}
\item Develop a CPM network
\item Determine the critical path of the network
\item Determine the expected project duration time period.
\end{enumerate}

\item Assume that the optimistic, most likely and pessimistic activity time are as
given in table team problem 2.  
\begin{table}[ht]
\begin{tabular}{l|l|l|l|l|l|}
Activity&Pessimistic&Most likely&Optimistic&Expected time& Variance \\ \hline
A&3&2&1&&\\
B&3&2&1&&\\
C&3&2&1&&\\
D&7&5&3&&\\
E&9&6&4&&\\
F&3&2&1&&\\
G&7&5&4&&\\
H&3&2&1&&\\
I&3&2&1&&\\
J&3&2&1&&\\
K&3&2&1&&\\
\end{tabular}
\caption{team problem 2}
\end{table}
\begin{enumerate}
\item Fill up the table
\item Find the probability of finishing up the job in 32 weeks
\end{enumerate}


\item  You should work on this activity during the lab hours. 
\begin{enumerate}
\item Develop a CPM network and determine the critical path for the events
defined in the Gantt chart in figure \ref{gantt}.
\item Develop a Gantt chart for the events defined in the table \ref{tab2}.
\item For the events defined in table below
\begin{enumerate}
\begin{table}[ht]
\begin{tabular}{|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|}
Successor&Predecessor&Optimistic&Most likely&Pessimistic&Expected&Variance\\
\hline
2&1&3&5&8&&\\ \hline
3&1&4&6&9&&\\ \hline
5&3&3&4&5&&\\ \hline
5&2&2&3&4&&\\ \hline
7&5&3&4&5&&\\ \hline
4&1&8&12&14&&\\ \hline
6&4&14&18&21&&\\ \hline
12&7&5&10&14&&\\ \hline
11&7&5&10&14&&\\ \hline
10&7&5&10&14&&\\ \hline
9&7&5&10&14&&\\ \hline
8&7&5&10&14&&\\ \hline
13&12&4&6&10&&\\ \hline
13&11&4&6&10&&\\ \hline
13&10&4&6&10&&\\ \hline
13&9&4&6&10&&\\ \hline
13&8&4&6&10&&\\ \hline
14&13&10&12&18&&\\ \hline
14&6&16&18&24&&\\ \hline
15&14&7&10&15&&\\ \hline
17&14&10&15&22&&\\ \hline
18&17&5&9&9&&\\ \hline
16&18&4&6&8&&\\ \hline
19&16&6&8&12&&\\ \hline
19&15&3&8&12&&\\ \hline
20&19&3&4&5&&\\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\caption{team problem 3}
\end{table}

\item Fill up the table
\item Draw the PERT network
\item Find the probability of finishing the task on time if the design due date
is after 95 days
\end{enumerate}
\end{enumerate}

{\b Material selction}

\item in two opposit columns, list five uses of metals that are not appropriate
for plastics and five uses of plastics not appropriate for metals
\item  From table of mechanical properties of selceted materials list the
differences between pure metals and metal alloys.
\item Based on the table compare between Metals-Alloys/Ceramics/Plastics in
terms of weight, strength, stifness, thermal expansion.
\item What is the difference between forging, casting and welding
\item Choosing the captain in your team to measure and record his
anthropometric dimensions on the chart shown.   In what percentile would you
classify your captain?
\begin{figure}[ht]
\vspace{5in}
\caption{anthropometric chart}
\end{figure}
\end{enumerate}
\subsection{Indvidual Activities}
\begin{enumerate}
\item Define the following terms
\begin{enumerate}
\item CPM
\item Gantt chart
\item PERT
\end{enumerate}
\item Discuss four major classifications of material
\item List the classifications of manufacturing processes
\item Describe the following
\begin{enumerate}
\item casting
\item forging
\item welding
\end{enumerate}
\item Assume that an engineering course term project is broken down into a
number of major jobs or activities, as shown in table below. 
\begin{enumerate}
\item Draw a Gantt Chart
\item Develop a CPM network 
\item Determine the critical path of the network
\item Determine the project duration time period.
\end{enumerate}
\begin{table}[ht]
\begin{tabular}{lllll}
Activity&Activity&Activity&Immediate&Activity \\
No.&Description&Identification&Predecessor activity&Duration (days)\\ \hline
1&Literature Collection&A&-&7\\
2&Literature review&B&A&4\\
3&Outline Preparation&C&B&1\\
4&Analysis&D&B&10\\
5&Report writing&E&C&5\\
6&Typing&F&E&3\\
7&Revision&G&E&4\\
8&Final Draft&H&G&2\\
\end{tabular}
\caption{Term Project}
\end{table}
\item Assume that for example page 34 in your text, the optimistic, most
likely, and pessimistic activity times are as in table 2 below.  Calculate
each activity expected time and variance and the probability of accomplishing
the design project in 32.5 weeks.  In addition calculate each event's earliest
and latest event times.
\begin{table}[ht]
\begin{tabular}{llllll}
Activity&Pessimistic&Most likely&Optimistic&Expected time&Variance\\ \hline
A&4&2&1&2.16&0.25\\
B&3&2&1&2&0.11\\
C&4&2&1&2.16&0.25\\
D&8&5&3&5.16&0.7\\
E&5&4&2&3.83&0.25\\
F&7&4&3&4.33&0.44\\
G&5&3&2&3.17&0.25\\
H&5&3&2&3.17&0.25\\
I&9&6&3&6&1\\
J&7&4&2&4.17&0.69\\
\end{tabular}
\caption{Activity Time estimates (weeks)}
\end{table}

\item Describe the following terms
\begin{itemize}
\item Ergonomics
\item Human error
\item Human reliability
\item Human engineering
\emph{Hint: Search in the library for more information}
\end{itemize}
\item Consider that you have been assigned the task of designing the
environment for an industrial worker who must be seated at acontrol console for
four continuous hours each day to monitor and control plant and laboratory
temperature and humidity.  Describe (list) the types of environment that would
be considered ideal for this operator.
\item Design an optimum display of controls, indicators and utility item listed
below in the proposed dash layout, paying particular attention to human
engineering principles.  Where present dials and indicators are ineffective,
redesign the display of information for effecient use by the human operator. 
Ask yourself the follwoing questions about the information to be conveyed:
which is the most important? least important? which is the most often used?
Least often used? WHat information must be the indicator convey to the
operator? Does it provide this information? Does it over-inform? Under-inform?
What medium does it use? Most indicators are used visually and eyes are often
overburdened in their functional useage. This would be critical in a high speed
car.  Could same information be obtained by other means, such as light sound,
touch?

\begin{tabular}{ccc}[ht]
Controls&Indicators&Utility Items\\ \hline
LightS&Speedometer&Glove Compartment \\
Wipers&Odometer&Radio\\
Defroster&Fuel&Cigarette Lighter\\
Heat&Engine Temperature& Ventilation\\
Directional signals&Battary&Rear view mirror\\
Horn&Oil Prussure&\\
Switch (starter)&High-beam Lights&\\
\end{tabular}
\begin{figure}[ht]
\vspace{2.5 in}
\caption{Proposed dash design layout}
\end{figure}

\item What is meant by each of the follwoing terms
\begin{enumerate}
\item elastic limit
\item yield point
\item ultimate strength
\item stifness
\end{enumerate}
\item What is the major requirement of a material if minimum deflection is
required. Give an example?
\item What is meant by ductility? Suggest a method to measure ductility?
\end{enumerate}

