\chapter{Prerequisites}
 Before beginning the discussion on the process, it is
important to state some of the prerequisites that should be in mind during
the design process.   The word prerequisites was chosen to reveal what
the designer needs to keep in mind during the design process.  The prerequisites
include: scheduling, material selection, human factors, and safety issues.
 \section{Scheduling} 
 Development of a new product, following the design
process, is always limited by the time available for the entire process. 
Over the years, several procedures have been proposed to manage and plan for
an artifact.   Many projects have failed because of the lack of detail.
Historically, engineering projects were typically created by one engineer,
working alone. The designer, the drafter and the planner were the same
person.  In recent years, however, with the advancement of products and the
technology products require, teams of engineers and technical helpers work
beside each other to accomplish a project.  In the following, we will discuss
some existing techniques for scheduling.
 \subsection{Gantt Chart} 
 This chart was introduced by Henry L. Gantt and Frederick Taylor in the early
1900's to aid the management of  projects.  The Gantt chart has taken the
form of a bar chart.  The steps to establish a Gantt chart are as
follows:
 \begin{enumerate}
 \item List all events or milestones of the
project in an ordered list.
 \item Estimate the time required to establish
each event. 
\item List the starting time and end time for each event. 
\item Represent the information in a bar chart.
 \end{enumerate}
 An example of the Gantt chart is shown in figure\ref{gantt}.

\input{fig2-1}


\subsection{CPM/PERT}
 The critical path method(CPM) and the program evaluation and review technique(PERT,) which were
originally developed during the same time period, are the two most widely
used approaches. PERT was developed under the guidance of the U.S. Navy
Special Projects Office by a team that included members from the Lockheed
Missile Systems Division and the consulting firm Booz, Allen and Hamilton. 
The technique was developed to monitor the effort of 250 main contractors and
9,000 subcontractors who were concerned with the Polaris missile project. 
CPM was the result of the efforts of the Integrated Engineering Control Group
of E.I. duPont de Nemours \& Company, and it was developed to monitor
activities related to design and construction.  A survey of manufacturing
companies in the United States revealed that CPM/PERT is used over 65\% of
the time, among all other methods.  A CPM/PERT project generally has the
following characteristics:
 \begin{enumerate}
 \item There are clearly defined activities or jobs whose accomplishment results in project
completion.
 \item Once started, the activity or job continues without interruption.
 \item The activities or tasks are independent, which means
they may be started, stopped, and performed individually in a prescribed
sequence.
 \item The activities or jobs are ordered and they follow each other in a specified manner.
 \end{enumerate}
 
 Even though the CPM and PERT techniques were developed independently, the basic theory and symbology in
both techniques are essentially the same.

 \subsection{Definitions}
Several symbols, terms and definitions are used in developing the CPM/PERT
networks, and they are:
 \begin{enumerate}
 \item Event (node): This represents a point in time in the life of a project. An event can be the
beginning or the end of an activity.  A circle is used to represent an
event.  Generally, each network event is identified with a number.
\item Activity: This is an effort needed to carry out a certain portion of the
project.  An activity consumes money, labor, time and materials and is
denoted by a continuous arrow [$\longrightarrow$].  The direction of progress
on the project is indicated by the arrowhead.  Furthermore, an activity both
begins and ends at a circle.
\item Dummy activity: This is an imaginary
activity that takes zero time and no resources to perform.  Its purpose is to
show appropriate relationships between activities.  A dotted arrow is used to
represent such an activity.
 \item Network paths:  These are the paths used (or needed) for reaching
the project termination point, or the event from the project starting point or event.
 \item Critical path: This is the longest path with respect to time duration through 
the PERT/CPM network. In other words, the critical path creates the largest sum of activity
duration of all individual network paths.
 \item Earliest event time (EET): This is the earliest time at which an event occurs,
providing all proceeding activities are accomplished within their estimated times.
\item Latest event time (LET): This is the latest time at which an event
could be reached without delaying the predicted project completion date.
\item Total float: This is the latest time of an event, minus the earliest
time of the preceding event, and the duration time of the in-between
activity.
\end{enumerate}
\subsection{Network Development} 
 Steps involved in constructing a CPM network are as follows:
\begin{enumerate}
\item Break down the design into individual activities and
identify each activity.
 \item Estimate the time required for each
activity.
\item Determine the activity sequence.
\item Construct the CPM network, using the defined symbols.
 \item Determine the critical path of the network.
 \end{enumerate}
  Similarly, the steps involved in developing a PERT network are:
 \begin{enumerate}
  \item Break down the design into individual activities and identify each activity.
 \item Determine the activity sequence.
 \item Construct the PERT network, using the defined symbols.
 \item Obtain the expected time to perform each activity, using the following formula:

\[T_{e}=\frac{x+4y+z}{6}\]where\\$T_{e}$ is the expected time for the
activity \\$x$ is the optimistic time estimate for the activity \\$y$
is the most likely time estimate for the activity \\$z$ is the
pessimistic time estimate for the activity \\
\item Determine the network critical path.
\item Compute the variance associated with the estimated
expected time of $T_{e}$ of each activity using the following
formula:\[S^{2}=\left(\frac{z-x}{6}\right)^{2}\]
\item  Obtain the probability of accomplishing the design project on the 
stated date using the following
formula: \[w=\frac{T-T_{L}}{\left[ \sum{
S_{cr}^{2}}\right]^{\frac{1}{2}}}\]where \\$S_{cr}^{2}$ is the variance
of activities on the critical path \\$T_{L}$ is the last activity's
earliest expected completion time, as calculated through the network.
\\$T$ is the design project due date, expressed in time units. Table
\ref{tab1} presents the probabilities for selective values of $w$.

\begin{center}
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{|l|l|}$w$&Probability\\ \hline
-3&0.0013\\
-2.5&0.006\\
-2&0.023\\
-1.5&0.067\\
-1&.159\\
-0.5&0.309\\
0&.5\\
0.5&0.69\\
1&0.84\\
1.5&0.933\\
2&0.977\\
2.5&0.994\\
3&0.999\\
\end{tabular}
\label{tab1}
\end{table}
\end{center}

\end{enumerate}
\subsubsection*{Example} 
 A mechanical design project was broken down into a
number of major jobs or activities, as shown in table \ref{tab2}. A CPM
network was developed using the data given in the table,  and the
critical path of the network was determined, along with  the expected
project duration time period.

\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{cccc}
Activity&Activity&Immediate Predecessor&Activity Duration\\
Description&identification&activity or
activities&week or weeks \\ \hline
formation&A&--&1\\search and&&&\\
idea generation&B&A&2\\evaluation&C&B&1\\and
evaluation&D&C&4\\manufacture&E&D&3\\procurement&F&D&4\\assembly&G&E,F&2\\&H&G&2\\estimation
&I&G&4\\and presentation&J&H,I,3\\
\end{tabular}
\caption{Design Project}
\label{tab2}
\end{table}

Using the defined symbols and the data given in table \ref{tab2}, the CPM
network shown in figure \ref{cpm}. 

\input{fig2-2}

The
paths originated at event 1 and terminated at 11 are as follows: 
\begin{enumerate}
\item A-B-C-D-E-G-I-J time=20 
\item A-B-C-D-F-G-I-J time=21
\item A-B-C-D-E-G-H-J  time =18
 \item A-B-C-D-F-G-H-J time=19\end{enumerate}
 These results indicate that the longest path is
(A-B-C-D-F-G-I-J),  and the predicted time for the design project is 21
weeks.
 \section{Material Selection} 
 The design, even of the simplest element, requires the selection of a suitable material and a
decision regarding the methods of manufacturing which are to be used in
producing the element.  These two factors are closely related, and the
choice will affect the shape, appearance, cost and so on. It may also
determine the difference between a commercial success and a commercial 
failure.  As the design becomes more complex and involves more elements, 
the selection of suitable materials and methods of production becomes more
difficult. The design engineer must be sufficiently familiar with the
characteristics and  properties of the materials, and the way in which
they can be shaped to ensure that  his or her decisions are well
made.
 \subsection{Material Classifications and Properties}
The various types of materials that may be used in a product design are 
classified as:
 \begin{enumerate}
 \item Metals: This important materials
classification can be further divided  into two; ferrous and nonferrous
alloys.  Ferrous alloys are based on iron, which has mechanical
properties. Nonferrous alloys are based on materials other than iron,
such as copper, tin, aluminum and lead.
  \item Ceramics and glass: These are the result of the combination of metallic and nonmetallic
elements.  They are good insulators, brittle, thermally stable, and more wear
resistant compared to metals. They are also harder and lower in thermal
expansion than most metals.
 \item Woods and organics: These are obtained from trees and plants.  Their major advantage is that 
they are a renewable resource.  However, some of their drawbacks include that they
absorb water, require special treatment to prevent rotting and are more
flammable.
 \item Polymers or plastics: These materials change viscosity with variation in temperature; 
therefore they are easy to mold into a given shape. There are several benefits of polymers: 
they are good insulators; they are resistant to chemicals and water; they have a smooth
surface finish; and they are available in many colors, which eliminates
the need for painting. There are several drawbacks to polymers, however:
they are low in strength, they deteriorate  in ultraviolet light, and
have excessive creep at all temperatures.
\end{enumerate}
The properties of material can be divided into six categories: mechanical,
thermal, chemical, and fabrication.  Mechanical properties include:
fatigue, strength, wear, hardness and plasticity.  Thermal properties 
include: absorptivity, fire resistance and expansion coefficience.  
Physical properties are: permeability, viscosity, crystal structure,  and
porosity.  Chemical properties include: corrosion, oxidation and
hydraulic permeability. Four important electrical properties are:
hysteresis, conductivity, coercive force and dielectric constant.  There
are several fabrication properties, some of which are: weldability,
castability, and heat treatability. Partial list of selected material proprties is shown in figure
\ref{mats}.

\input{fig2-3}

 \subsection{Material Selection Process}
Several systematic approaches have been developed for
selecting materials, one of these is listed here:
\begin{enumerate} 
\item Perform a material requirements analysis: This
step is concerned  with determining environmental and service conditions
under which the product will have to operate.
 \item List the suitable material: This step calls for filtering through 
the available material and obtaining several suitable candidates.
 \item Choose the most suitable material: This step involves analysis of the material 
listed, with respect to such factors as cost, performance,  availability and
fabrication ability, then selecting the most suitable material.
 \item Obtain the necessary test data: this step calls for determining the 
important properties of the selected material, experimentally under real 
life operational conditions.
\item Product specification fulfillment: The selected material must satisfy the
 stated specifications.
\item Cost: This important factor plays a dominant role in the marketing of the
end product. 
\item Material availability: The selected material must be
available at a reasonable cost.
 \item Material Joining approach: Under real life conditions, it may be impractical 
to produce an element using a single piece of material.   This may call for manufacturing the
components with different pieces of material joined together to form a single unit.
 \item Fabrication: Engineering products usually require some level
of fabrication, and different fabrication techniques are available. 
Factors affecting the  fabrication method selected include: time
constraints, material type,  product application, cost, and quantity to
be manufactured.
\item Technical issues: Technical factors are mainly
concerned with the material mechanical properties. Examples include:
strength compared to anticipated load, safety factors, temperature
variation and potential loading changes.
\end{enumerate}
\subsection{Primary Manufacturing Methods}
 The primary manufacturing methods which are used to convert a material 
into the basic shape required are:
 \begin{enumerate}
 \item Casting: Casting is a widely used
first step in the manufacturing process. During casting, an item takes on
its initial usable shape.  In the casting process, a solid is melted 
down and heated to a desirable temperature level.  The molten material is
then poured into a mold made in the required shape.  The cast items may
range in size and weight from a fraction of an inch to several yards. 
Typical examples include: a zipper's individual teeth, and the stern
frames of ships.
 \item Forging: Forging, which is among the most
important methods of manufacturing items of high performance uses,
involves changing the shape of the piece of material  by exerting force
on that piece.  The methods of applying pressure include:  the mechanical
press, hydrolic press and drop hammer. Products such as cranckshafts,
wrenches and connecting rods are the result of forging.  The material to be
forged may be hot or cold.
\item Machining: Machining involves removing unwanted material from a block of  
material according to given specifications, such as size, shape, and finish, to produce a final
product. There are many machining processes such as milling, boring,
grinding and drilling.
 \item Welding: Welding is a versatile production process which is used for  
combining items produced by some other means of manufacturing.  Welding is the
process of permanently joining two materials through coalescence, which involves 
a combination of pressure and surface conditions.
\end{enumerate}
\section {Human Factors}
The science that considers humans and their reactions to
familiar, as well as strange environments, is known by several terms.
Some include human engineering, human performance and ergonomics. 
Adapting a human to fit a given environment is almost impossible, so
methods for adapting the environment to suit the human must be devised. 
Human behavior  is critical to the success of an engineering system.
Therefore, it is important to take typical human behaviors into
consideration during the design phase.  Examples of typical human
behaviors include:
 \begin{enumerate}
 \item Humans are often reluctant to admit errors.
 \item Humans usually perform tasks while thinking about other things.
 \item People frequently misread or overlook instructions and labels.
 \item People often respond irrationally in emergency situations.
 \item A significant percentage of people become complacent after successfully 
handling dangerous items over a long period of time.
 \item Most people fail to recheck outlined procedures for errors.
 \item People are generally poor estimators of speed, clearance, or distance.
 They frequently overestimate short distance and underestimate large distance.
 \item People are generally too impatient to take the time needed to observe.
 \item People are often reluctant to admit that they cannot see objects well,
due either to poor eyesight or to inadequate illumination. They generally use
their hands for examining or testing.
 \end{enumerate}
Every time people dial telephones, drive cars, study oscilloscopes, computers or
form parts on a lathe, they have joined their sensing, decision-making, 
and muscular powers into an engineering system.  Figure \ref{erg} shows
the coupling of components that are necessary to consider a human as an
integral part of an efficient human-machine system.


\input{fig2-4}

 \subsection{Human Sensory Capabilities}
  Human sensory capabilities include:
  
\begin{enumerate}
\item Sight: Human eyes see differently from different
angles or positions. For example, looking straight ahead, the eyes can
perceive all colors. However, with an increase in the viewing angle,
human perception begins to decrease.  The limits of color vision are
given in table \ref{tabc}:
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{ccccccc}Situation&Green&Blue&Yellow&White&Green-Red&Red\\\hline
Vertical&40$^{o}$&80$^{o}$&95$^{o}$&130$^{o}$&--&45$^{o}$\\Horizontal&--&100$^{o}$&120$^{o}$&180$^{o}$&60$^{o}$&--\\\end{tabular}\label{tabc}\end{table}
Also, at night or in the dark, small-sized orange, blue, green and yellow
lights are impossible to distinguish from a distance.
 \item Noise: The performance quality of a task requiring intense concentration can
 be affected by noise.  It is an established fact that noise contributes
to peoples' feelings, such as irritability, boredom, and well being.  A noise
level of 90 DB (decibels) is considered harmless, while above 100 DB is unsafe.
Levels in excess of 130 dB are considered unpleasant and may actually
become harmful.  
\item Touch: Touch adds to, or may even replace, the information
transmitted to the brain by eyes and ears.  For example, it is possible to
distinguish knob shapes with touch alone. This ability could be valuable if,
for instance, the power goes out and there is no light.
\item Vibration and motion: It is now an accepted fact that poor performance
of physical and mental tasks by equipment operators could be partially or fully
attributed to vibrations. For example, eye strain, headaches and motion sickness 
could result from low frequency, large amplitude vibrations.  Useful guidelines for the effects of vibration
and motion are as follows:
\begin{enumerate}
\item Eliminate vibrations with an amplitude greater than 0.08 millimeter.
\item Use such devices as shock absorbers and springs wherever possible.
\item Use damping materials or cushioned seats to reduce vibration wherever possible.
\item Since seated humans are most affected by vertical vibration, use this information
to reduce vertical vibrations.
\item The resonant frequency of the human vertical trunk, in the
seated position, is between 3 and 4 cycles per second.  Therefore, avoid any
seating that would result in or would transmit vibration of 3 to 4 cycles per.
\end{enumerate}
\end{enumerate}
\subsection{Anthropometric Data}
Anthropomorhy is the science that deals with the dimensions of the human body.  
These are divided into statistical groups known as percentiles.  If 100 men are lined up 
from smallest to largest in any given respect, they would be classified from the 1 percentile
to the 100 percentile.  The 2.5 percentile means that designs based on this
series of dimensions would allow up to 2.5\% of the population to use the
system and the remaining 97.5\%  would be excluded.  Figure \ref{adult} shows the
dimensions of a standing adult male.

\input{fig2-5}

\section{Safety Considerations}
One very important consideration in engineering design maintains that the resulting product be
safe for humans.  In recent years, the liability decisions made by the
courts further increased the importance of safety. According to the
National Safety Council, over 105,000 Americans were accidently killed and over 10
million suffered a disabling injury in 1980 which translated into \$83.2 billion.
Therefore safety is hardly new, it has been important for thousands of years.
There are many safety functions used during the design process,including:
\begin{enumerate}
\item Developing accident prevention requirements for the basic design.
\item Participating in the design reviews.
\item Performing hazard analyses during the product design cycle.
\end{enumerate}
\subsection{Safety Analysis Techniques}
The two techniques, failure modes and effect analysis (FMEA) and fault trees, which are used for design
stage reliability analysis can also be applied for saftey analyses.
\subsubsection{Failure modes and effect analysis (FMEA)} 
This method was originally developed for use in the design and development of flight control
systems. The method can also be used to evaluate design at the initia stage from the
point of view of safety.  Basically, the technique calls for listing the potential
failure modes of each part, as well as the effects on the parts, and on
humans.  The technique may be broken down into seven steps:
\begin{enumerate}
\item Defining system boundaries and requirements.
\item Listing all items.
\item Identifying each component and its associated failure modes.
\item Assigning an occurrence probability or failure rate to each failure mode.
\item Listing the effects of each failure mode on concerned items and people.
\item Entering remarks for each possible failure mode.
\item Reviewing and initiating appropriate corrective measures.
\end{enumerate}
\subsubsection{Fault trees}

This technique uses various symbols.  It starts by identifying an undesirable event,
called the top event, and then successively asking the question "How could this event occur?"
This process continues until the fault events do not require further development.  If
occurrence data are known for the basic or primary fault event, the occurrence measure
for the top event can be calculated.
\section{Technical Writing and Presentation}
In the engineering and scientific professions, communication skills
are as important as in other fields.  Following the development of an innovative
design and a cost estimate that predicts large profit, the designer must be able to
communicate the findings to other people. An old adage reminds us that a tree falling
in a forest doesn't make a sound unless there is someone to listen.  Similarly, the
best technical design in the world might never become implemented unless the
designer can communicate the design to the proper people, in the right way. 

The quality of a report generally provides an image in the reader's mind that,
in large measure, determines the reader's impression of the quality of work.  Of course, an
excellent job of report writing cannot disguise a sloppy investigation, but many
excellent design studies have not received proper attention and credit because the
work was reported in a careless manner. A formal technical report is usually
written at the end of a project.  Generally, it is a complete, stand-alone
document which is aimed at persons who have widely diverse backgrounds.  Therefore, much
more detail is required.  The outline of a typical formal report consists of:
\begin{enumerate}
\item Cover page: Should have 
\begin{itemize}
\item title of the report
\item name of author(s)
\item address\end{itemize}
\item Summary: summarizes the work, and should also include a short conclusion.
\item Table of contents.
\item List of figures and list of tables that includes the corresponding page number.
\item Introduction: Background of the work (market analysis) to acquaint the 
reader with the problems with and purposes of carrying on the work.
\item Design Process: Details of the procedure followed in the design process.  
\item Discussion: This section should contain the comprehensive
explanation of the results. The discussion could be divided into several
subsections, such as:
\begin{itemize}
\item technical analysis (force
requirement, speed, etc.)
\item details of the build up of the artifact
\item equipment used
\item assembly and setup procedures
\item experimental setups and results
\item details of the final results
\end{itemize}
\item  Conclusions: This section states in as concise a form as possible the
conclusions that can be drawn from the study. 
\item References: This section lists all the documents to
which the writers referred. The information on each document must be complete and must
follow the same format throughout.
\item Appendices: This includes material deemed
beyond the scope of the main body of the report.  The appendix section may be
divided into as many subsections as necessary.
\end{enumerate}
\subsection{Steps in Writing a Report}
The five operations involved in the writing of a high-quality
report are best remembered with the acronym POWER:
\begin{enumerate}\item {\bf P}:  Plan the writing  
\item {\bf O}: Outline the report
\item {\bf W}: Write
\item {\bf E}: Edit
\item {\bf R}: Rewrite
\end{enumerate}
Good writers usually produce good reports. 
Some of the attributes of good writing:
\begin{enumerate}\item Write as objectively as possible.  
DO not become emotionally involved or attached to a
problem or a solution.
\item Be reasonably methodical.
\item Record whatever is learned, and keep in mind that whatever 
work is performed must eventually be documented.
\item Always strive for clarity in writing, and keep in mind that
the written material should be simple and straightforward.
\item Deliver the written material on time.
\end{enumerate}
There are also certain qualities associated with good reports, such as:
\begin{enumerate}\item Delivered on the due date.
\item Effectively answers readers' questions as they arise.
\item Gives a good impression at the first sight.
\item Reads coherently.
\item Contains an effective summary and conclusion.
\item Is written clearly and concisely, and
avoids vague or superfluous phrases.
\item Provides pertinent information.
\end{enumerate}
\subsection{Illustration Guidelines}
Visual elements, such as figures, charts, graphs, etc., in technical reports have
specific purposes and convey specific information.  Visuals are used to explain, 
illustrate, demonstrate, verify or support written material.   Visuals are only
valuable if their presentation is effective.  The general guidelines for preparing
effective visuals (illustrations) are as follows:
\begin{enumerate}
\item Reference all illustrations in the text.
\item Reference the data source.
\item Carefully plan the placement of
illustrations.  
\item Specify all units of measure and the scale used in the drawing.
\item Label each illustration with an identifying caption and title. 
Include figure source, if it was obtained from another document.
\item Spell words out rather than using abbreviations.
\item When a document has five or more figures, include a list of figures 
at the beginning of the report.
\item Avoid putting too much on an illustration.
\end{enumerate}
\subsection{Mechanics of Writing}
The following suggestions are presented as a guide to writing in order to
help writers aviod some of the most common mistakes:
\begin{itemize}
\item Paragraph structure: Each paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that provides 
an overall understanding of the paragraph.  Since each paragraph should have a single theme or
conclusion, the topic sentence states that theme or conclusion.
\item Sentence length: Sentences should be kept as short as possible so 
that their structure is simple and readable.  Long sentences require complex construction,
provide an abundance of opportunity for grammatical errors, take considerable writing time,
and slow the reader down.  Long sentences are often the result of putting together
two independent thoughts that could be stated better in separate sentences.
\item Pronouns: There is no room for any ambiguity between a pronoun and the noun
for which it is used. Novices commonly use "it", "this", "that", etc., where it
would be better to use one of several nouns.  It may be clear to the writer, but
is often ambiguous to the reader. In general, personal pronouns (I, you, he, she, 
my, mine, our, us)are not used in reports.
\item Spelling and punctuation: Errors in these basic
elements of writing are inexcusable in the final draft of the report.
\item Tense: use the following rules when choosing the tense of the verb
when writing:
\begin{itemize}
\item Past tense: Use to describe work done when you were
building or designing, or in general when referring to past events.
\item Present tense: Use in reference to items and ideas in the report itself.
\item Future tense: Use in making predictions from the data or results that will be
applicable in the future.
\end{itemize}\end{itemize}
\section{Presentation Style}
Unlike advertising executives, engineers are ill-equipped to sell their ideas.
Second hand information represented by the company officials may not answer 
all of the client's questions. In this write-up and during the semester,
students will be given the opportunity to be trained in technical presentations. 
Also, in this write-up, the techniques of oral presentations will be briefly discussed.
\subsection{Objective}
Every presentation should have an objective. The speaker's main objective is to
deliver the message(objective) to the audience.  The objectives may vary from
one talk to another.  To identify the real objective, one needs to ask the following question: 
"If everything goes perfectly, what do I intend to achieve?"  One also should realize
who the audience is, and what their educational level may be.  Time, in most
cases, is limited.  It is of utmost importance to keep within the scheduled time during
question/answer sessions.  To accomplish this, detailed planning is required. 
Different tools can be used in the presentation such as, slides, models, transparencies,
audio-visual, and the Web.  Make sure to account for the time needed to shift, if more than one
medium is used.  One easy way to evaluate the effectiveness of a presentation
while on a team, is to practice through role playing. One person can play
the role of the speaker, and the rest of the team can act as the audience, and
possibly even play the devil's advocate. This way, the team gains valuable
experience before attempting the actual presentation.  
\subsection{Oral Presentation - Obstacles}
To sell your ideas to others, you should first be
convinced that your ideas will accomplish the task.  Oral presentation requires a
high degree of creativity.  Recall that humans resist changes, although they
announce that they embrace it.  Humans like familiar methods.  Changes require
additional efforts which humans, in general, resist. Some typical reactions one may hear
include:
\begin{itemize}
\item We tried before.
\item It is a too radical change.
\item We have never done that before.
\item Get back to reality.
\item We have always done it this way.
\item I don't like the idea.
\end{itemize}
The speaker needs to keep in mind that:
\begin{itemize}
\item Only 70\% of the spoken word is actually received and understood. 
Complete understanding can come through
repetition and redundancy in speech.
\item People mostly understand three
dimensional objects. Two dimensional projections need to be transmitted with added
details.
\item Usually people perceive problems from their own perspectives.
\item Convey ideas so that they may be interpreted with the
least expenditure of energy.
\end{itemize}
\subsection{Oral Presentation Dos and Donts}
\begin{enumerate}
\item Know your audience thoroughly.  Deliver an extempore- prepared talk.
\item Never read from notes, a sheet or directly from an overhead projector.
\item Bring the audience up to the speed, in the first few moments.
\item Stay within the time allotted.
\item Include relevant humorous stories, anecdotes or jokes ( Only if you are good at it).
\item Avoid using specialized technical jargon.  Explain the terms if you feel the audience
may not know.
\item Understand your message clearly.  The entire goal is to
clearly communicate the message.
\item Practice-practice-practice! You may like to memorize
the introduction and concluding remarks.
\item The dry run is a dress rehearsal.  Use it to iron out problems in
delivery,organization and timing.
\item Avoid mannerisms: speak confidently but not aggressively.
\item Maintain eye-to-eye contact with some audience members, 
and keep shifting that contact through the talk.
\item Never talk to the board or to empty space.
\item Present the material in a clever fashion, but not in a cheap and senstional fashion.
Be genuinely sincere and professional.
\item A logical presentation is much more critical in an oral one than it is in a
written one.
\end{enumerate}
\subsection{Oral Presentation Techniques}
\begin{enumerate}
\item Visual aids (sketches, graphs, drawings, photos, models, slides,transperencies,
the Web) often convey information more efficiently and effectively. 
Visual aids permit the use of both the hearing and seeing senses, and they help the
speaker.
\item Limit slides (Viewgraphes) to not more than one per
minute.
\item Each slide should contain one idea.
\item The first slide should show the title of your talk and names.
\item The second slide should give a brief outline of the talk.
\item The last slide should summarize the message you just delivered.
\item If you need to show a slide more than once use a second copy.
\item Avoid leaving a slide on the screen if you have finished discussion on the topic.
\item Never read directly from the slide.  Spoken words should complement the slides. 
Prepare notes for each slide and use them during practice.
\item Use graphs to explain variations.  Clearly label the axis,
data, and title.  Acknowledge the source.
\item Every graph should have a message (idea). Color should enhance the communication,
not distract from it.
\item Audiences respond to well organized information.  That means:
\begin{enumerate}
\item Efficient presentation.
\item All assumptions clearly stated and justified.
\item Source of information and facts are clearly outlined.
\end{enumerate}
\item Begin with the presentation of the problem and conclusion/recommendation (primary
goal).
\item Finish ahead and be prepared for the question/answer
session.
\end{enumerate}
\subsection{Question/Answer session}
The question/answer session is very important. It shows the enthusiasm of the
audience and usually reveals interest and attention.  In the Q/A session you should:
\begin{enumerate}
\item Allow the questioner to complete the question, before answering.
\item Avoid being argumentative.
\item Do not let the questioner feel that the question is stupid.
\item Adjourn the meeting, if the questions slack off.
\item Thank the audience one final time after the Q/A session.
\end{enumerate}
\section{Problems}
\subsection{Team Activities}
{\b Scheduling}
\begin{enumerate}
\item Painting a two story house was broken down
into a number of major jobs or activities as shown in the table  \ref{prob1} below:

\begin{table}[ht]
\begin{tabular}{l|l|l|l|l}
&Activity&Identification&Predecessor&Duration\\ 
\hline&Contract signed&A&--&2\\&Purchase of material&B&A&2\\
&Ladder\&staging in site&C&A&2\\&Preparation of surface&D&C,B&5\\&Base Coat
Complete&E&D&6\\&Base Coat Inspected&F&E&2\\&Trim Coat Complete&G&E&5\\&Trim
Coat Inspected&H&G,F&2\\&Final Inspection&I&H&2\\&Removal of
staging&J&H&2\\&Final Clean up&K&I,J&2\\
\end{tabular}
\caption{Team problem 1}
\label{prob1}
\end{table}
\begin{enumerate}
\item Develop a CPM network.
\item Determine the critical path of the network.
\item Determine the expected project duration time period.
\end{enumerate}
\item Assume that the optimistic, most likely and
pessimistic activity times are as given in table \ref{prob2} Team problem 2. 

\begin{table}[ht]
\begin{tabular}{l|l|l|l|l|l|}
&Pessimistic&Most
likely&Optimistic&Expected time& Variance \\
\hline&3&2&1&&\\&3&2&1&&\\&3&2&1&&\\&7&5&3&&\\&9&6&4&&\\&3&2&1&&\\&7&5&4&&\\&3&2&1&&\\&3&2&1&&\\&3&2&1&&\\&3&2&1&&\\
\end{tabular}
\caption{Team problem 2}
\label{prob2}
\end{table}

\begin{enumerate}
\item Fill up the table.
\item Find the probability of finishing up the job in 32 weeks.
\end{enumerate}
\item  You should work on this activity during the lab hours.
\begin{enumerate}
\item Develop a CPM network and determine the critical path for the events defined 
in the Gantt chart in figure \ref{gantt}.
\item Develop a Gantt chart for the events defined in the table \ref{tab2}.
\item For the events defined in table \ref{prob3} below:
\begin{enumerate}

\begin{table}[ht]
\begin{tabular}{|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|}
&Predecessor&Optimistic&Most
likely&Pessimistic&Expected&Variance\\\hline&1&3&5&8&&\\ \hline&1&4&6&9&&\\
\hline&3&3&4&5&&\\ \hline&2&2&3&4&&\\ \hline&5&3&4&5&&\\ \hline&1&8&12&14&&\\
\hline&4&14&18&21&&\\ \hline&7&5&10&14&&\\ \hline&7&5&10&14&&\\
\hline&7&5&10&14&&\\ \hline&7&5&10&14&&\\ \hline&7&5&10&14&&\\
\hline&12&4&6&10&&\\ \hline&11&4&6&10&&\\ \hline&10&4&6&10&&\\
\hline&9&4&6&10&&\\ \hline&8&4&6&10&&\\ \hline&13&10&12&18&&\\
\hline&6&16&18&24&&\\ \hline&14&7&10&15&&\\ \hline&14&10&15&22&&\\
\hline&17&5&9&9&&\\ \hline&18&4&6&8&&\\ \hline&16&6&8&12&&\\
\hline&15&3&8&12&&\\ \hline&19&3&4&5&&\\ \hline\end{tabular}
\caption{Team problem 3}
\label{prob3}
\end{table}

\item Fill up the table.
\item Draw the PERT
network.
\item Find the probability of finishing the task on time if the
design due date is after 95 days.
\end{enumerate}\end{enumerate}
{\b Material selction}
\item In two opposite columns, list five uses of metals that are not
appropriate for plastics and five uses of plastics not appropriate for
metals.
\item From the table of mechanical properties of selected materials,
list the differences between pure metals and metal alloys.
\item Based on the table, compare between Metals-Alloys/Ceramics/Plastics 
in terms of weight, strength, stiffness, and thermal expansion.
\item What is the difference between forging, casting and welding?
\item Choose the captain of your team to measure and record his anthropomorphic
dimensions on the chart shown \ref{anthr}.  In what percentile would you classify your
captain?

\input{fig2-6}

\end{enumerate}
\subsection{Indvidual Activities}
\begin{enumerate}
\item Define the following terms:
\begin{enumerate}
\item CPM
\item Gantt chart
\item PERT 
\end{enumerate}
\item Discuss four major classifications of material.
\item List the classifications of manufacturing processes.
\item Describe the following:
\begin{enumerate}
\item casting
\item forging
\item welding
\end{enumerate}
\item Assume that an engineering course term project is
broken down into a number of major jobs or activities, as shown in table \ref{prob4} below.
\begin{enumerate}
\item Draw a Gantt Chart.
\item Develop a CPM network.
 \item Determine the critical path of the network.
\item Determine the project duration time period.
\end{enumerate}

\begin{table}[ht]
\begin{tabular}{lllll}&Activity&Activity&Immediate&Activity
\\&Description&Identification&Predecessor activity&Duration (days)\\
\hline&Literature Collection&A&-&7\\&Literature review&B&A&4\\&Outline
Preparation&C&B&1\\&Analysis&D&B&10\\&Report
writing&E&C&5\\&Typing&F&E&3\\&Revision&G&E&4\\&Final
Draft&H&G&2\\\end{tabular}
\caption{Term Project}
\label{prob4}
\end{table}


\item Assume that, for example,the optimistic, most likely, 
and pessimistic activity times are as in table \ref{prob5} below.  Calculate each activity's
expected time and variance, and the probability of accomplishing the design 
project in 32.5 weeks.  In addition, calculate each event's earliest and latest event
times.

\begin{table}[ht]
\begin{tabular}{llllll}&Pessimistic&Most
likely&Optimistic&Expected time&Variance\\
\hline&4&2&1&2.16&0.25\\&3&2&1&2&0.11\\&4&2&1&2.16&0.25\\&8&5&3&5.16&0.7\\&5&4&2&3.83&0.25\\&7&4&3&4.33&0.44\\&5&3&2&3.17&0.25\\&5&3&2&3.17&0.25\\&9&6&3&6&1\\&7&4&2&4.17&0.69\\\end{tabular}
\caption{Activity Time estimates (weeks)}
\label{prob5}
\end{table}

\item Describe the following terms:
\begin{itemize}
\item Ergonomics
\item Human error
\item Human reliability
\item Human engineering\emph {Hint: Search in the library for more
information.}
\end{itemize}
\item Consider that you have been assigned the task
of designing the environment for an industrial worker who must be seated at a control
console for four continuous hours each day. The worker monitors and controls plant
and laboratory temperature and humidity.  Describe (list) the types of environment that
would be considered ideal for this operator.
\item Design an optimum display of controls, indicators and utility items listed
below in the proposed dash layout, paying particular attention to human engineering
principles.  Where present dials and indicators are ineffective, redesign the display of 
information for effecient use by the human operator. Ask yourself the following questions 
about the information to be conveyed: Which is the most important? Least important? 
 Which is the most often used? Least often used? What information must the indicator
convey to the operator? Does it provide this information? Does it
over-inform? Under-inform? What medium does it use?  Most indicators are used
visually and eyes are often overburdened in their functional useage. This would be critical
in a high speed car.  Could the same information be obtained by other means, such
as light, sound, or touch?

\begin{tabular}{ccc}&Indicators&Utility Items\\
\hline&Speedometer&Glove Compartment \\&Odometer&Radio\\&Fuel&Cigarette
Lighter\\&Engine Temperature& Ventilation\\signals&Battary&Rear view
mirror\\&Oil Prussure&\\(starter)&High-beam
Lights&\\\end{tabular}

\input{fig2-7}

\item What is meant by each of the following terms:
\begin{enumerate}
\item elastic limit
\item yield point
\item ultimate strength
\item stiffness
\end{enumerate}
\item What is the major requirement of a material if minimum deflection is required?
Give an example.
\item What is meant by ductility? Suggest a method to measure ductility.
\end{enumerate}
